at fair value through profit or loss are recognised
under Net income/expense from financial transactions.
The second measurement category includes equity
index bonds and structured products, which contain
both an interest bearing and a derivative component
The Group has decided to include equity index bonds
and structured products in the category Fair Value
Option.
In the balance sheet, these are represented by the
items: Treasury and other bills eligible for refinancing,
Bonds and other interest-bearing securities,
Subordinated loans, Shares and participations and
Derivatives.
Financial instruments - Financial assets measured at
amortised cost
Loan receivables, purchased receivables and accounts
receivable are financial assets that are not derivative
instruments, that have fixed or fixable payments and
that are not listed on an active market. These
receivables are represented by the balance sheet
items Cash and balances at central banks, Lending to
credit institutions, Lending to the public, Other assets
and Prepaid expenses and accrued income. These
assets are measured at amortised cost. Amortised cost
is calculated based on the effective interest rate used
at initial recognition.
Accounts receivable and loan receivables are
recognised at the amounts expected to be received, in
accordance to IFRS 9. Purchased receivables,
comprised of a portfolio of non-performing consumer
loans, were purchased at a price significantly lower
than the nominal value. Recognition follows the
effective interest model, with the carrying amount of
the portfolio corresponding to the present value of
future cash flows, discounted using the effective
interest rate applicable on initial acquisition of the
portfolio, based on the relationship between cost and
the projected cash flows at the time of acquisition.
The projected cash flows are regularly reviewed during
the year and updated to reflect collection results,
agreements on repayment plans signed with debtors
and macroeconomic information. All updated
information is gathered and processed in the Group's
models according to IFRS 9.
Financial instruments - Financial liabilities at fair
value through profit or loss
If a financial liability does not meet the conditions
for measurement at amortised cost or for
measurement at fair value through other
comprehensive income, it must be valued at fair value
through profit or loss. The category comprises two
sub-categories, the mandatory and the Fair Value
Option.
In the balance sheet the mandatory category includes
Derivatives. Both unrealised and realised changes in
the fair value are recognised under Net
income/expense from financial transactions.
Financial instruments - Liabilities at amortised cost
When liabilities arise, these are valued at amortised
cost and accrued interest expenses are accrued on an
ongoing basis according to the effective interest
method.
In the balance sheet the liabilities are represented by
the balance sheet items Liabilities to credit
institutions, Deposits and borrowing from the public,
Issued securities, Subordinated debts, Other liabilities,
Accrued expenses and accrued income.
Net investments in foreign operations
For foreign operations carried out
in the form of a branch, the Group's treasury function
manages the net investment in each currency and
reduces currency risk through other positions in the
same currency and through currency derivatives.
Translation differences are recognised through profit
or loss. Accumulated gains and losses in equity are
recognised through profit or loss when the foreign
operations are fully or partly divested.
Methods of determining fair value
Financial instruments listed on an active market
The fair value of financial instruments listed on an
active market is determined on the basis of the asset’s
listed bid price on the closing date without additions
for transaction costs (for example, brokerage) at the
time of acquisition. A financial instrument is deemed to
be listed on an active market if listed prices are readily
available from a stock exchange, dealer, broker, trade
association, pricing service or regulatory agency and
those prices represent actual and regularly occurring
market transactions on commercial terms. Any future
transaction costs on disposal are not taken into
consideration. The fair value of financial liabilities is
based on the quoted selling price.
Instruments that are listed on an active market are
recognised under Treasury and other bills eligible for
refinancing, Bonds and other interest-bearing
securities, and Shares and participations.
Financial instruments not listed on an
active market
If the market for a financial instrument is not active,
the fair value is determined by applying various
measurement techniques that are based on market
data as far as possible. The fair value of currency
forwards is calculated by discounting the difference
between the contracted forward rate and the forward
rate that can be utilised on the closing date for the
remaining contract period. Discounting is at a risk-free
interest rate based on government bonds. The fair
value of interest swaps is based on discounting
anticipated future cash flows in accordance with
contractual terms and maturities using the market
rate. The fair value of non-derivative financial
instruments is based on future cash flows and current
market rates on the closing date. The discount rate
used reflects market-based interest rates for similar
instruments on the closing date. Information about
fair value recognised in the statement of financial
position based on a measurement technique is
provided in Note G38 Financial instruments. The Group
measures derivatives at fair value solely based on
input data that is directly or indirectly observable on
the market. Instruments that are not listed on an
active market are recognised under Lending to credit
institutions, Deposits and lending from the public,
Derivatives and Other assets and liabilities.
Credit losses and impairment of financial assets
Credit losses comprise confirmed credit losses during
the year less amounts received for previous years’
confirmed credit losses and changes in the provision
for expected credit losses. Loans are recognised net of
confirmed credit losses and the provision for expected
credit losses (ECL).
In accordance to IFRS 9, the Group assesses expected
credit losses together with future-oriented factors for
all financial instruments, within the category of
amortised cost. Expected balance from loan
commitments are also considered. The Group reports
the possible losses on each reporting occasion.
The assessment of ECL should reflect: An objective
and a probability-weighted amount determined
through the evaluation of a number of potential
outcomes; with consideration given to money’s time
value and to all reasonable and verifiable information
available on the reporting date without unreasonable
expense or exertion. The assessment also take into
account historical, current and forecasts for future
economic conditions.
The calculation of credit losses is based on expected
credit losses under IFRS 9 and will be calculated by
multiplying the PD with the Exposure at Default (EAD)
multiplied by the Loss Given Default (LGD). This means
that the calculation of expected credit losses is based
o
n
the bank’s total lending volumes, including credits
without any increased credit risk.
The impairment model includes a three-stage model
based on changes in the credit quality of financial
assets. Under this three-stage model, assets are
divided into three different stages depending on how
credit risk has changed since the asset was initially
recognised in the balance sheet. Stage 1 encompasses
assets for which there has not been a significant
increase in credit risk, stage 2 encompasses assets for
which there has been a significant increase in credit
risk, while stage 3 encompasses defaulted assets, That
is assets which have been transferred to debt
collection or are past due 90 days or more.
The provision of expected credit losses for assets is
governed by the category to which the assets belong.
Provisions are made under stage 1 for expected credit
losses within 12 months, while provisions for stage 2
and 3 are made for expected credit losses under the
full lifetime of the assets.
A central factor impacting the amount of expected
credit losses is the rule governing the transfer of an
asset between stage 1 and 2. The Group makes use of
change in the lifetime Probability of Default (PD) to
determine the significant increase in risk, with the
change assessed by a combination of absolute and
relative changes in the lifetime PD. Furthermore, all
credits for which payments are more than 30 days late
are attributed to stage 2, regardless of whether or not
there is a significant increase in risk.
To determine whether there is a significant increase in
risk, and thus a transfer to stage 2, the bank starts by
assessing the change in the expected life PD of the
credit. In order for there to be a significant increase in
risk, a change in start PD must amount to the total of a
given threshold and a percentage change in the start
PD. In addition, the bank also uses an absolute change
in PD that entails that if a lifetime PD increases by a
given percentage point, which varies depending on
product category, then it is attributable to stage 2.
Alongside the significant PD changes described above,
the bank uses a “back stop,” meaning that a credit that
is between 30 and 90 days past due is attributable to
stage 2 even if there is no significant increase in PD.
Reversals are made from stage 2 to stage 1 when a
receivable that was previously under stage 2 is no
longer subject to a significant increase in risk or is no
longer past due for payment by more than 30 days.
Reversals can only be made from stage 3 for
receivables that are between 90 and 120 days past due
for payment and are then reversed to stage 1 or stage
2 when payments are made during a 12-month period.
The calculation of the lifetime for credit cards and
other revolving credits is based on predictive models
about the future limit use and statistical repayment
plans. The models are based on internal historical data
where different models are used for homogeneous
groups of credits with similar explanatory variables.
In addition to the IFRS 9 reserves described in the
preceding paragraph, the Group also makes additions
for “management overlays,” based on forward-looking
macroeconomic profits under IFRS 9. The Group has
decided to base the forward-looking calculations on a
macroeconomic variable (unemployment level) that
from a historical perspective has proven to correlate
well with changes in the Group’s credit losses. Input
used for the forward-looking calculations are forecasts
of future unemployment per geographic market in
which the Group operates, which are obtained from
Bloomberg. The Group also applies a weighted scenario
of these forecasts in which the weight on 31 December
2021 used the median value of 50 per cent, of which 40
per cent for a more negative trend (higher
unemployment) and 10 per cent for a more positive
trend (lower unemployment). In addition to the
management overlay above, an assessment of the
future effects of COVID-19 was made based on a
further negative trend in unemployment, compared
with the forecasts used in the management overlay in
the markets in which the Group operates.
The lending to credit institutions are deemed to have
very low credit risk and are not considered to have
been exposed to increased credit risk, which is why
lending to credit institutions has not been impaired.